Sandra León
Sandra León is a political scientist and Tenured Research Scientist at the Institute of Public Goods and Policies of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). Her research focuses on federalism, accountability and political behaviour. More at https://sandraleon.eu
25 June 2026
This report analyses the state of Shadow Education (SE) in Spain using the latest available wave of the National Statistics Institute’s (INE) Household Education Expenditure Survey (EGHE 2023/24) and compares it with the immediately preceding available wave (2019/20), analysed in detail in the EsadeEcPol report by Moreno and Martínez (2023). We find that aggregate spending […]
8 October 2025
In the verge of a new technological revolution, Math and Science skills will gain its importance as critical skills for social and economic progress. Why some countries are better than others in teaching such skills? Recent results of the international assessment TIMSS 2023 displayed poor results for both Spain and France in Math and Science […]
14 June 2023
In recent years the average grade in Selectividad, Spain’s university entrance exam, has risen from 8.75 out of 14 in 2015/2016 to 10.34 in 2021/2022. This increase can be seen in all regions. The most common hypothesis in public debate to explain this rise is that it is artificial: students know less and less, and […]
18 January 2023
According to the 2019/2020 Household Education Spending Survey (EGHE), the size of the Shadow Education (SE) market in Spain is even larger than estimated by the Household Budget Survey (EPF) for the same year, presented in Moreno’s EsadeEcPol report in January 2022. Based on this new survey, also from the INE, total spending amounted to […]
15 June 2022
To better understand the consensus and divisions around the crucial challenge of the green transition, EsadeEcPol has conducted a survey that is pioneering in its breadth and depth. Here we present its key results and the resulting snapshot of public opinion. The fundamental consensus begins with the high importance attached to the problem of climate […]
12 April 2022
In public debate, polarization is usually presented as inevitable, extreme and omnipresent, in the territorial sphere as well as in the spheres of ideology and identity. Nevertheless, the results of the ICIP-EsadeEcPol survey – conducted in 2021, presented here, and aimed at analyzing the nature and measuring the severity of polarization in Spain – show […]
30 March 2022
Fundación Vodafone España and Haz, la Alianza por la Educación set the working group the central objective of exploring the competency-based curriculum and its effective implementation and assessment in Spain. This exercise was carried out through 8 online sessions held between April and September 2021, organised by Fundación Vodafone España and the Center for Economic […]
19 January 2022
Spending on shadow education (SE) has grown in Spain regardless of the economic context: its volume tripled between 2006 (€246M) and 2017 (€732M), coinciding with the Great Recession. Demand appears to be inelastic, and would de facto be turning what was a luxury good into an essential good. The relationship between SE and schooling was […]
